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Section seven: A systems theoretical approach to intercultural communication
'Cultures don't meet, people do'...
...an inclusive approach of intercultural communication.
Edwin Hoffman
Fontys Hogeschool Sociaal Werk Eindhoven, The Netherlands
Exercise 7.1.a (Part a) Reflective activity
Image Building:
Think back to your life history (at home, at school, with your family, friends, the street, the neighbourhood you lived in). Try to recall the factors that have contributed to your image building of your attitude towards people with a different ethnic background.
Some questions to help you:
- which messages do you, and did you, get from your family (parents, educators, relatives) about people with a different ethnic background?
- what was, and is, the attitude of your friends towards people with a different ethnic background?
- which image building of people with a different ethnic background do you remember or do you still see in the media (TV, radio, books, movies, video)?
- do you have a specific positive and/or negative experience with someone with a different ethnic background from yourself?
Exercise 7.1.b (Part b) Reflection and discussion: in pairs
Examine your answers to the Image Building activity in Part (a) above. Answer the following question:
- What is the influence of these answers above on your interaction and your current work with people from a different ethnic background?
Exchange your thoughts and experiences with someone else.
Read the following text
The T.O.P.O.I model
The TOPOI model is a systems theoretical model in which cultural differences are made operational in five fundamental places or areas of communication in which failures of communication may occur:
Tongue (Language),
Order,
Persons,
Organisation
Intentions.
The basis of the model is that differences and misunderstandings in communication can be traced to these five places. The model also offers different strategies for intervention, based on the following five axioms:-
- People influence with and especially without words.
- What I think is true, is not necessarily true for another person.
- Communication is a process of influence that has a level of content (semantic) and a relational level (pragmatic).
- It is not possible not to communicate - all behaviour is communication.
These four axioms are the starting points of the TOPOI model. Additionally, we would add a fifth axiom:
5. Communication is influenced by the organisational context.
This fifth axiom refers to the relevance of the social context in shaping interpersonal communication; and to the concept of communities of practice as the site of care delivery. Within the model of communities of practice provided in the reading, the importance of the institutional axis was stressed. Thus, in the TOPOI model there is a necessary concern with the interaction of the personal and the institutional factors impinging upon transcultural communication
The TOPOI model is therefore underpinned by these five axioms in the sense that:-
- Tongue (the verbal and non-verbal language and the first axiom);
- Order (the second axiom);
- Persons (the third axiom);
- Organisation (the fifth axiom); and
- Intentions (the fourth axiom).
The TOPOI model therefore highlights five features in the communication process where differences and misunderstandings might occur. Indeed, in the Greek language, 'TOPOI' means 'places' - i.e. plural of 'place'. Analogous to this meaning, Tongue, Order, Persons, Organisation and Intentions are the 'places' in communication you could stop at during or after a conversation in order to trace possible disturbing differences and misunderstandings. In this way every 'place' offers possibilities to prevent or detect misunderstandings
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It is worth noting that, in the practice of communication, the places Tongue, Order, Persons, Organisation and Intentions are very tightly interwoven with each other. They are only artificially distinguished here in order to make them clearly identifiable. In the communication, however, you will have to deal with all these places at the same time. Therefore, as we have seen above, multiple channels of communication are routinely and complexly employed in negotiating both representation and presentation in any specific instance.
The value of the TOPOI model, in respect of a culturalistic and some anti-racist approaches, is the broad view it can provide of communication between people from different ethnic backgrounds. This is because the model does not give fixed ethnic-cultural background information beforehand (a culturalistic approach); neither does it focus merely on 'racism' or the ethnicity or 'colour' of a person (some anti-racist approaches) as the singular explanation of people's behaviour. Certainly, it is very important to know as much as possible about the different minority ethnic groups with whom you work - especially about their ethnic-cultural background, religion, migration-history and social economic position - for this information or knowledge provides a possible framework to understanding what people do and say. But, you can never reduce a person only to his or her ethnic-cultural background.
Intercultural communicative competence
The TOPOI model therefore emphasises the intercultural communicative competence identified by Kim (1992) - that is, a generic ability to operate within any cross-cultural setting. It invites us to stay in touch with our own sense of authenticity: to recognise our anxiety about ambiguity in the situation; to recognise the potential and real challenges to our own values and expectations; and to remain committed to making the interaction effective.
Central to this is the development of an inclusive approach of intercultural communication. This involves the two inextricably linked principles of 'Recognised Equality' and 'Recognised Differences'. 'Recognised Equality' refers to what people have in common (e.g. being clients or patients within the healthcare) and therefore give them equal rights and obligations. On the other hand 'Recognised Differences' refers to the (real) differences between groups and individuals. The one principle cannot exist nor be used without the other because it would lead, within this context, to colour-blindness (I treat everybody the same, thus equal) or to racism, exotism or essentialism (reduction of a person to the characteristic in which she or he is different).
An inclusive approach of intercultural communication therefore means developing a respectful communication based on equality and giving space to the other person - in all her or his diversity.
The TOPOI model helps to give space to this self-representation of the person, in this case of members of minority ethnic groups. In other words: the person is invited to define her identity herself (see the area Persons) and to share her interpretation of the reality, or more concretely of the situation that matters (see the area Order). Further the TOPOI model takes the societal power relations into account e.g. by questioning whose language the interlocutors are speaking (see the area Tongue); the position of the interlocutors; the dominant rules, procedures and laws (see the area Organisation) and by questioning (in all areas of TOPOI) the influence of the prevailing social representations in the environment on the communication (i.e. the prevailing images, ideas and ongoing discourse in society) - many of which, with regard to minority ethnic groups, are negative.
Circular communication
Finally, the TOPOI model consists of a number of questions with which you can form hypothesises about where communication possibly gets stuck. The more hypothesises you can form, the more possibilities you have to open up the communication and to keep it going.
Also, because of the circular character of communication, the questions posed by the TOPOI model should always be addressed on three levels:
- What am I doing that the other does as s/he does?
- What is the other doing that I do as I do?
- What is the influence from the broader context upon what the other and I do?
The circular character of communication means that it is impossible not to communicate: - that is you are, at the same time, both having influence and being influenced.
Circular thinking is also opposite to linear thinking about communication (i.e. the sender - receiver model). In such a linear model there is cause and effect, of guilt and innocence. In the circular thinking model there is no guilt, only part. I, the other and the broader social context, each have a part in how the communication goes. This makes communication a very complex process where misunderstandings are likely to be the rule rather than the exception.
A systems theoretical vision of intercultural communication
A systems theoretical vision of intercultural communication is therefore underpinned by six basic principles.
- Communication is a universal, systems theoretical and intercultural process:
(i) All over the world communication takes place in essentially the same way: people attach meanings, exchange them with others and 'negotiate' about the truth.
(ii) A person's communication can be understood only through an understanding of his or her network of social systems: e.g. gender, age, family, education, religion.
(iii) Each social system is characterised by a culture and a social identity of its own. This means that every individual has a multiple, multicultural identity. Therefore, all interpersonal communication is intercultural.
(iv) An individual and situational approach to the communication between persons from different cultural backgrounds should be underpinned by the understanding that: 'Cultures don't meet, people do!' - Intercultural Communication is interpersonal communication in which explicit attention is paid to the possible cultural factors which influence communication. These cultural factors can be based on ethnicity, sex, age, socio-economic status, education, profession, function, religion, etc.
- In professional communication, functionality is the starting-point
(i) Normalising instead of exoticising.
(ii) Functional and practical considerations instead of emotional or ideological discussions. - Communication is circular, not linear
(i) You simultaneously exercise and undergo influence - including that from the wider social environment.
(ii) In communication, each person takes 'a share'; not of guilt, nor of cause and effect.
(iii) Communication requires an open, reflective attitude: 'What do I do ... that the other does the way he/she does it?' - A realistic view on communication
(i) Differences, and as a result misunderstandings, in communication are more often the rule than the exception.
(ii) Realising this prevents irritation, self-reproach and reproaching others. - An optimistic view of humanity or the hypothesis of 'The Best'.
(i) Every human being engages him/herself in seeking security, recognition and self-direction of her/his life.
(ii) Every person tries as much as possible to act meaningfully and rationally.
(iii) Every behaviour is logical or 'rational' for the person concerned.
(iv) Recognition of effort made is of vital importance for every one.
(v) People can change.
The following case study illustrates how to apply the TOPOI model in an everyday situation.
Case study example
During visiting times a maximum of four visitors per bed are admitted in a hospital. A Surinamese-Creole woman often gets more than four visitors. The nursing staff condones this in the beginning. Actually they do not really know how to handle the situation. 'That is the way, they do it', they say: 'Apparently it is part of their culture'. But one day nine visitors appear; that is more than twice the number permitted. The head of the nursing staff decides that this cannot be tolerated. She enters the room and says: 'This is impossible! There are too many people with Mrs. X! Only four visitors are allowed at the bed. Five people have to leave the room so you can change later.' When the visitors do not react immediately she asks it more insistently and says: 'You have to adapt to the rules like all the others'. This provokes one of the youngest visitors to respond angrily. 'Certainly because we are black is not it? We are always discriminated against'. The head of the nursing staff is completely bowled over and annoyed at the same time. It was absolutely not her intention to discriminate, but she did want the rules to be obeyed. The patient, who has a good relationship with the nursing staff, saves the situation by calling the boy who made the remark to order and sending away with some of the visitors. The boy who made the remark, the patient's grandson, goes to the head of the nursing staff and apologises at the end of visiting hour.
Analysis of case study
This incident was afterwards discussed in the collegial consultation (structured discussion in a small group of colleagues about case study, brought in by one of the colleagues).
Tongue (The verbal and non-verbal language)
There is a great influence from the current social representations in what the people (are able to) say and understand of each other in this case study. In media and from the 'people in the street' you often can read and hear that 'foreigners' have to adapt. This social representation probably made the head of the nursing staff use the words: "You have to adapt to the rules like all the others." When she was asked if she would have used the same words to 'white' visitors, she hesitated and said she did not know. Under influence of the same social representation the boy, and may be also the other visitors, could not hear the words of the head of the nursing staff as 'adapt to the rules' but more in the sense 'you as foreigners have to adapt to the English culture or the English society'. This also counts for the saying '... like all the others', which was understood 'like all the other foreigners' and not as 'like all the other visitors' (which the head of the nursing staff meant).
Also the other verbal and non-verbal language of the head of the nursing staff make the visitors, and especially the boy, angry because they did not feel the code of the message was respectful and friendly. The word 'discriminated' really hurts the head because it has such a negative weight. This happens again under the influence of a social representation, a strong social norm ('one should not discriminate' or 'discrimination is bad'). The same counts for the word 'we', which was now understood by the head as 'we blacks or we foreigners' and was not understood as 'we the family' or 'we the visitors'. The head confirmed that when the boy had chosen other words like 'we are never taken seriously' she would not be so irritated and bowled over. It is important to notice that it is also under the influence of the social representations mentioned above, that the boy choose the words 'Certainly because we are black is not it? We are always discriminated against'.
Order (the view)
The nursing staff views the large number of visitors as a feature of the minority ethnic culture (culturalistic view) and that is why they do not discuss it with her. This happens under the influence of another strong social norm (representation) which says 'You should tolerate and respect other cultures'. The influence of this social representation hinders the nursing staff to considerate other views such as: - perhaps the woman and the visitors do not know the visiting rules; maybe the visitors are members of one family who like to visit together; perhaps the visitors come from far and have to travel together; and so on.
The boy views the remark of the head as discrimination. He may be under influence of the social representation vivid in 'black' minority ethnic groups that 'White people are racists'. This hinders the boy, and maybe the other visitors, from interpreting the remarks of the head positively - in the sense of an organisational requirement meant in the interest of the patient.
Persons (identities)
On the interpersonal level, the head of the nursing staff sees the woman and the visitors in the first place as members of an minority ethnic group and not the woman as a patient and the visitors as visitors or family.
The words 'You have to adapt like all the others' made the boy suddenly feel like a 'black' person, a 'foreigner' or a migrant and not as a visitor or grandson; that made him angry.
The boy addresses the head on an interpersonal level as a 'white' person and not as the head of the nursing staff, or more generally, a functionary of the hospital.
Organisation
In the 'Organisation' area, the nursing staff have unintentionally created a lack of clarity by sometimes condoning more visitors than the rules permit.
Intentions
In this case, we see many good intentions and efforts: the nursing staff is very understanding, tolerant, respectful and caring (not too many visitors); the visitors come all together and visit their family member. But the outcomes or effects of these good intentions create unintended ambiguity, disruption and hurt.
Interventions
The interventions are clear: the nursing staff can recognise the good intentions and efforts of the visitors by commending them for visiting. After this recognition the staff can ask if they know that only four visitors are allowed for the peace of the patients.
In the field of organisation, the staff need to be more consistent in fulfilling the visiting rules. This does not prohibit the establishment of exceptional arrangements on functional/practical grounds (needs, interests, problems). However, any such arrangements should be made available to all patients (inclusive approach) i.e. special arrangements and exceptions should not be organised only for ethnic-minorities nor be based on ethnic grounds.
N.B. Needless-to-say, special services like a praying room for Muslims can be created but this should then be a general right of each religious client group - whether to pray, to meditate or just to be silent. This is to prevent an exclusive thinking in terms of 'we' and 'them'.
A last suggestion for intervention is that the staff should reflect on the social representations and the influence they have on their communication with people from minority ethnic groups. These reflections can help them to open up the dialogue and become more open-minded in their communication. In this way, practitioners can move from passive tolerance to a more dynamic relationship - respectfully calling each other to account.
The following exercise is a structured method for consulting with colleagues; based on the use of case studies and the application of the TOPOI Model Analysis.
Exercise 7.2 Group activity
Application of the TOPOI model: collegial consultation based on case studies
Undertake the following group exercise using the checklists provided in Annex 1 and 2 for guidance (pages 100-103).
- The group consists of three or four participants.
- Each participant brings 3/4 copies of an intercultural case study from their practice.
- For each case study there is 1 hour of discussion.
The phases
- The introduction phase
- Participants give their case study to the other group members.
Everybody reads the case studies. - The participants choose which case study will be the first to be analysed.
- One of the participants (whose case study is not being discussed) takes care of the time and the process.
2. The informative phase
- The colleague (whose case study is first) clarifies his/her case study and her/his learning point.
- The other colleagues ask informative questions (open questions, supportive and without judgement) to gain a clear picture of the situation and the learning point of the colleague.
- Colleagues use the TOPOI Model Analysis (see Annex 1) to ask informative questions.
3. The phase of analysis
- Colleagues write down their analysis using key words. (Keep in mind the learning point of the colleague and take into account the professional personality of the colleague). In other words the analysis should be 'tailor made' for the colleague.
- Colleagues also use the 'TOPOI Model: Analysis' (see Annex 1) to make their analysis.
- Colleagues share their analysis with each other.
- The colleague whose case study is being discussed listens to others' analysis and seeks clarification if necessary.
4. The consultation phase
- One by one, participants offer suggestions for intervention. (Keeping in mind the learning points of their colleague and taking into account their professional personality). (See Annex 2 - TOPOI Model: Intervention).
- The colleague receives these suggestions without comments. Without defending him/herself and asking questions only for clarification.
5. The closing phase
- The colleague responds to the intervention suggestions. The purpose is not to 'judge' the suggestions but to value the reflections and develop learning.
- Other colleagues share similar experiences.
6. The evaluation phase
- What learning did participants gain from this exercise?
- What can be learned from the process?